Scribed by Bharath Ramsundar
Summary
Last time we introduced the setting of one-time symmetric key encryption, defined the notion of semantic security, and proved its equivalence to message indistinguishability.
Today we complete the proof of equivalence (found in the notes for last class), discuss the notion of pseudorandom generator, and see that it is precisely the primitive that is needed in order to have message-indistinguishable (and hence semantically secure) one-time encryption. Finally, we shall introduce the basic definition of security for protocols which send multiple messages with the same key.
1. Pseudorandom Generators And One-Time Encryption
Intuitively, a Pseudorandom Generator is a function that takes a short random string and stretches it to a longer string which is almost random, in the sense that reasonably complex algorithms cannot differentiate the new string from truly random strings with more than negligible probability.
Definition 1 [Pseudorandom Generator] A function
is a
-secure pseudorandom generator if for every boolean function
of complexity at most
we have
(We use the notation for the uniform distribution over
.)
The definition is interesting when (otherwise the generator can simply output the first m bits of the input, and satisfy the definition with
and arbitrarily large
). Typical parameters we may be interested in are
,
,
and
, that is we want
to be very small,
to be large,
to be huge, and
to be tiny. There are some unavoidable trade-offs between these parameters.
Lemma 2 If
is
pseudorandom with
, then
.
Proof: Pick an arbitrary . Define
It is clear that we may implement with an algorithm of complexity
: all this algorithm has to do is store the value of
(which takes space
) and compare its input to the stored value (which takes time
) for total complexity of
. Now, note that
since at least when
. Similarly, note that
since
only when
. Now, by the pseudorandomness of
, we have that
. With some rearranging, this expression implies that
which then implies and consequently
◻
Exercise 1 Prove that if
is
pseudorandom, and
, then
Suppose we have a pseudorandom generator as above. Consider the following encryption scheme:
- Given a key
and a message
,
- Given a ciphertext
and a key
,
(The XOR operation is applied bit-wise.)
It’s clear by construction that the encryption scheme is correct. Regarding the security, we have
Lemma 3 If
is
-pseudorandom, then
as defined above is
-message indistinguishable for one-time encryption.
Proof: Suppose that is not
-message indistinguishable for one-time encryption. Then
messages
and
algorithm
of complexity at most
such that
By using the definition of we obtain
Now, we can add and subtract the term and use the triangle inequality to obtain that
added to
is greater than
. At least one of the two terms in the previous expression must be greater that
. Suppose without loss of generality that the first term is greater than
Now define . Then since
is a bijection,
. Consequently,
Thus, since the complexity of is at most
and
is
plus an xor operation (which takes time
),
is of complexity at most
. Thus,
is not
-pseudorandom since there exists an algorithm
of complexity at most
that can distinguish between
‘s output and random strings with probability greater than
. Contradiction. Thus
is
-message indistinguishable. ◻
2. Security for Multiple Encryptions: Plain Version
In the real world, we often need to send more than just one message. Consequently, we have to create new definitions of security for such situations, where we use the same key to send multiple messages. There are in fact multiple possible definitions of security in this scenario. Today we shall only introduce the simplest definition.
Definition 4 [Message indistinguishability for multiple encryptions]
is
-message indistinguishable for
encryptions if for every
messages
,
and every
of complexity
we have
Similarly, we define semantic security, and the asymptotic versions.
Exercise 2 Prove that no encryption scheme
in which
is deterministic (such as the scheme for one-time encryption described above) can be secure even for 2 encryptions.
Encryption in some versions of Microsoft Office is deterministic and thus fails to satisfy this definition. (This is just a symptom of bigger problems; the schemes in those versions of Office are considered completely broken.)
If we allow the encryption algorithm to keep state information, then a pseudorandom generator is sufficient to meet this definition. Indeed, usually pseudorandom generators designed for such applications, including RC4, are optimized for this kind of “stateful multiple encryption.”
Next time, we shall consider a stronger model of multiple message security which will be secure against Chosen Plaintext Attacks.